| This
article prints out as as 10 pages.
Return
to Front Page
Search
this site
Abstract
Introduction
Context
Design
Doctoral
Student Alphabet
Conclusions
References
|
Abstract
Context: Doctoral education
in nursing is needed for the development of nursing science. Yet,
because of the relative scarcity of doctorally prepared nurses in the discipline
(1%), there is little information available for prospective or new doctoral
students to help prepare them for the experience of doctoral study.
Learning the language needed for scholarly discourse is an important aspect
of acculturation to the role of the doctoral student and future nurse scholar/scientist.
Purpose: The
purpose of this study was to provide a review of typical terms the new
doctoral student may encounter in the first year of study in order to facilitate
acquisition of language needed for scholarly discourse and transition to
new scientific, scholarly roles.
Design: The first
year experiences of a doctoral student in nursing in a large research-based
university in the southwestern United States, using additional suggestions
from two fellow doctoral students, were reviewed and placed in the framework
of an alphabet. Humor, an ingredient that may assist in coping with new
experiences, was incorporated into the alphabet framework.
Results/Conclusions:
The doctoral student alphabet provides a review of terms that may be typically
encountered by prospective and/or students in a doctoral program in nursing.
Acquaintance with the language needed for scholarly conversations or discourse
may facilitate transition to the scholarly role. The development
of a doctoral alphabet related to later student experiences in a graduate
program might be helpful for more advanced doctoral students.
Acknowledgments:
The author recognizes the input and support of fellow doctoral students
Paige Fletcher and Tracie Harrison, as well as the inspiration and support
of Dr. Lynn Rew and Dr. Lorraine Walker, which began with the first doctoral
course.
Introduction
Doctoral education, perhaps the principal path for acquiring scholarly
knowledge and wisdom in any discipline, brings with it challenges and rewards,
as well as fears and concerns for those students who pursue it. Doctoral
education for students in the discipline of nursing is no different.
Doctorally prepared nurses are acutely needed in the discipline to further
develop and expand the science, as well as to prepare its future educators,
scholars, leaders, and policy makers. Thus, the nursing doctoral
student is a precious resource. Yet little nursing literature provides
a clear description of the experience of new doctoral students. And
since less than 1% of nurses in the United States (U.S.) are educated at
the doctoral level (American Association of Colleges
of Nursing (AACN), 2000), prospective and new doctoral students have
very few peers from whom to obtain information that will prepare them adequately
for the experience of doctoral study.
The purpose of this article is to introduce prospective and/or new doctoral
students to some of the terms they may encounter in their first doctoral
courses, in a sometimes humorous manner, so that some of the fears of the
unknown will decrease, and a degree of preparation or "anticipatory coping"
can begin before enrollment. The "doctoral student alphabet" will
provide a glimpse into the world of a first year doctoral student in a
Ph.D. program in nursing in a large research-based university in the southwestern
United States. It was compiled with first year doctoral program experiences
in vivid memory. It is hoped that this "alphabet" will help
prospective and new doctoral students feel more confident as they begin
the socialization process in to their new roles as doctoral students.
Such preparation may, as Stuart and Sundeen (1995)
describe preparation for any new and challenging experience, serve to inspire
and validate students during their educational journey.
Context
Doctoral education is a rigorous course of study that prepares a member
of a specific discipline for scholarly teaching and research endeavors.
The acquisition of new knowledge, new research methods, and new methods
of communicating knowledge are integral aspects of such educational programs.
Doctoral students must quickly become acquainted with the norms of their
new discourse community. Research in communication studies suggest
that students beginning doctoral study in any discipline must learn the
language, or conventions, of their discipline so that that they can more
fully engage in the conversations about its issues. Progress in scholarly
thinking and writing in a doctoral program may even be evaluated by the
increasing complexity of language structure evident in scholarly papers
and discussions (Berkenkotter, 1988). Doctoral
students begin to learn the language of their new discourse community as
soon they begin their first courses and are introduced to a literal alphabet
of new or generally new linguistic terms. Students start their programs
with the language with which they are familiar, and as they acculturate
to the scholarly world begin to acquire a different, more sophisticated,
vocabulary appropriate for the context of a more sophisticated scholarly
discourse community.
Since writing is a major part of the life of a doctoral student, it would
be helpful to have an introduction to the language that becomes familiar
to doctoral students as they progress through the first year of study.
A brief review of the new language required by the discourse community
of the doctoral student will provide prospective and even current doctoral
students with knowledge "up front" that can ease their transition to and
success in doctoral education. The alphabet may also provide a more
holistic view of the world of a doctoral student for graduate faculty who
may at times be isolated from the "thoughts and feelings of students" (Heinrich,
1998, p. 308).
Humor, although sometimes overlooked, can be useful for the graduate student
for its value in mediating stress. It can facilitate acculturation
into new roles, promote insight, help bring new situations into perspective
and promote more effective coping (Stuart & Sundeen,
1995). The conscious interjection of humor in this alphabet of
terms illustrates one aspect of the author's coping mechanisms and will
hopefully further stimulate new insights into the process that will change
one's life forever--doctoral education.
The doctoral alphabet may understandably contain words with which the reader
is already familiar, especially if he/she is already involved in research.
Some of the words included in the alphabet have relevance in many settings
outside of academia. The particular concepts chosen for this "alphabet"
were thought to have particular relevance for the prospective or new doctoral
student, although they do not represent the total range or complexity of
concepts encountered. Students who enter more clinically focused
doctoral programs may encounter fewer of these terms than students who
enter more traditional research-based doctoral programs. Nevertheless,
these concepts should have at least some relevance for most prospective
and new doctoral students.
Design
Interest in the idea of this paper began near the end of the author's first
year of the first year of the Ph.D. program in nursing as she reviewed
the experiences of the preceding year. A graduate educational background
in psychiatric nursing and 20 years of teaching at various levels of nursing
heightened her awareness of both the nuances of adaptation/socialization
aspects of the doctoral student role as well as the possible adaptive benefits
it might provide for future students. A conscious review of the year by
the author, after obtaining input from two fellow doctoral students, and
using the letters of the alphabet as a guide, provided the structure for
an overview of their first year in the doctoral program. The limitations
of using the experiences of three people in one doctoral educational program
for building a "doctoral alphabet" are recognized. The author, a
full-time student, took the required doctoral courses in nursing theory
and philosophy, as well as those that reflected her interests in the health
of underserved women. The article also reflects the many statistics
courses the author took during the first year, as well as concepts from
an elective academic writing course during the summer after the first year.
(References for all terms are included, in a departure from APA style,
in the reference section in order not to detract from the flow of the alphabet).
Meltzoff (1998) is the primary reference for definitions
of statistical and research related terms in the alphabet, and Nicoll
(1997) is the primary reference for nursing theory related terms.
Doctoral
Student Alphabet
A
ABD: Abbreviation
frequently used for All But Dissertation, which means the completion of
all doctoral courses but the dissertation itself. If prolonged beyond
3-4 years (the amount of time is debatable), it becomes that dreaded state
of purgatory or "non-well-being" reserved for those who have finished all
coursework, but have languished there beyond an acceptable time frame--you
don't want to go there!
alpha: Level of significance
set for a study: very important term for doctoral students to become acquainted
with and develop reverence for, as it affects Type I errors in quantitative
research (that could have occurred only by chance and not by the great
significance of your research findings).
amongst: A particularly
esteemed, archaic and distinguished way of saying "among," still preferred
in scholarly work by some professors.
analysis: Involves
dissecting a concept, statement, or theory into parts for greater understanding.
Also relates to detailed statistical examination and dissection of raw
data for greater understanding. One must become well acquainted with
analysis, since the astute researcher can use it in a variety of ways.
ANOVA: analysis
of variance: an important statistical analysis method in quantitative research
that involves comparing variation or variability between groups or levels
of a variable. You will spend much time in statistics courses searching
for all possible sources of variance.
B
beta: Has at
least two meanings in statistics, including the population slope in regression
analysis, or a Type II error, which is when you fail to find significance
in your research study although there really was something there.
(Yes, you do have to learn some Greek terms to properly understand statistics.)
bias: Try to
avoid at all costs as a researcher to increase the respectability and validity
of your research. It's more acceptable to admit and analyze sources
of bias in qualitative research than in quantitative research.
C
Chi squared statistic:
Another statistic to use for comparing data from groups against what you
think would be likely from chance or a hypothesis. Don't use this
one if you can use a more precise statistic.
"clean" data:--Not
related to housework. A process of carefully reviewing the quantitative
data in a research study to verify accuracy of data entry, as well as internal
consistency of the items from each subject or case. A few hours of
this may spur you to do housework or some other meaningful activity.
committee:
The doctoral committee is a group of professors who serve as the advisory
group for your dissertation. It is never too soon to start thinking
about your dissertation topic and possible committee members.
concepts: Become
very familiar with this descriptive term as concepts form the basis for
statements and theories that you may be analyzing and/or building.
Yes, you too can acquire the scholarly ability to develop theory.
D
deductive model:
A theoretical model that starts with general propositions and moves in
a logical manner toward more specific conclusions.
dependent variable:
Much time is spent in pursuit of this elusive wannabe or outcome variable,
which depends on how much the independent variable(s) vary.
dialectic:
A doctoral level term for logically analyzing ideas or theories, often
done in a question and answer format. Much of doctoral study involves
a thorough, thoughtful dialectic dialogue. Be prepared.
discipline:
You probably already knew about nursing as a profession; you will now learn
about nursing as a discipline, or area of knowledge that is distinctly
its own. Important for the researcher, since this unique perspective
ultimately defines many aspects of the research engaged in by its researchers.
discourse:
Generally means formally addressing an important subject in written or
spoken dialogue. Discourse leads to enlightenment, knowledge and
understanding.
dissertation:
Independent research project required of students in Ph.D. programs.
The litmus test for the Ph.D. candidate. See ABD.
E
effect size:
How strongly the independent variable actually influences the dependent
variable. Very important for the researcher to consider, since it
affects how powerful the statistical results of the research study are.
epistemology: One
of the four main branches of philosophy that examines the theory of knowledge
development. Important for the researcher to contemplate, since research
builds the knowledge base of the discipline.
ethics: Another main
branch of philosophy that focuses on morals and values, right and wrong,
and of prime concern for researchers. Researchers must value and
use ethical principles in all phases of the research process, including
use of informed consent and protection of rights of human subjects.
extant: Doctoral
level word that means something still exists.
external funding:
Highly desirable to obtain for your research study, as it means your proposed
study is credible, relevant and significant.
ethnography:
One type of qualitative research that focuses on culture.
F
field notes:
Notes of field observations and interactions used to develop the narrative
text produced in qualitative research.
funding: The sought
after prize of every researcher and doctoral student, as it means that
someone values your research enough to provide funding for it!
G
government funding:
Source of the Golden Fleece for researchers.
Greek: Yes, some
knowledge of the Greek language is needed in order to better understand
statistics, as many Greek letters are used in this field.
grounded theory:
One qualitative research method in which the researcher immerses him or
her self in data using inductive strategies in an attempt to generate and
build new theory.
H
hermeneutics: Interpretive
philosophy, the opposite of objective "hard" science, where knowledge comes
from trying to understand the meanings of lived a human experience that
is shared. It is gained by self-reflection.
historical research:
Another type of qualitative research using documents and records from the
past to develop increased understanding of the topic.
hypothesis: The accepted
way to state the tentative relationships between concepts that the researcher
is trying to prove or find in a research study.
I
inchoate: Another
one of those doctoral level words. Memorize it. One way to
describe the new doctoral student: in the early stages or just beginning.
independent variable:
The other type of variable that is very important to the quantitative researcher,
as it is the variable that predicts or affects the dependent or outcome
variable.
inductive model:
A theoretical model that uses specific concrete concepts to build more
general, abstract ideas or theories.
J
Nothing significant here.
Everyone needs a break sometime--even doctoral
students!
K
kappa: Another
Greek term: Cohen's kappa is a statistic that may be used to evaluate interrater
agreement between two judges. Use this one with categorical variables.
knowledge: The goal
of nursing research, which leads ultimately to the improvement of nursing
practice in some way.
L
Likert scale:
Very important numerical rating scale used frequently in quantitative survey
research
logic: Another
main branch of philosophy relevant to the research process that involves
valid reasoning by methods such as induction and deduction.
M
meta: A prefix
(Greek in origin) that when added to another word means going beyond or
to a higher level of understanding; frequently used in doctoral programs
in combination with many different words (meta-anything/meta-everything)
as noted below.
meta-analysis:
A rather new type of statistical analysis where knowledge is gained by
synthesizing the results or effects of a number of studies about the same
topics. Although you may not actually perform a meta-analysis in
your first year, you may utilize them in your reviews of the literature
metaphysics:
Another (the last!) main branch of philosophy that involves the study of
general concepts and the nature or structure of being.
meta-paradigm:
The structure for the boundaries of the phenomena that can be investigated
by a given discipline, thus, nursing has its own meta-paradigm as a starting
point for research questions and investigations.
modernism:
The time period in America from 1890-1940, and the relevant schools of
thought during that period on a given topic.
multiple regression:
A statistical technique in which a combination of several independent variables
are used to predict a dependent variable.
N
NIH: National
Institutes of Health: Source of much external funding for research
for those in health or social service related disciplines.
NINR : National
Institute of Nursing Research: Highly desired source of much external funding
for nursing research for both doctoral students and experienced researchers.
NSRA: Nursing
Student Research Award from the NINR funds doctoral or post-doctoral study
once you are far enough along in the program to develop a research proposal.
NUDIST: Not
related to colony, but to the name of a popular computer software program
used to organize and analyze qualitative data.
nurse: The doctoral
student's definition of nursing will most likely grow and change as he/she
progresses toward the role of nurse scientist.
nurse scientist:
Goal of nursing Ph.D. program: to prepare nurse scientists.
nursing science:
The body of scientific knowledge that is unique to nursing. New nurse scientists
hope to add to that body of knowledge.
O
ontology: The
study of the nature of being or meaning, usually discussed in relation
to one's philosophical views on the nature of the discipline. Keep
the dictionary handy for this one.
P
paradigm: A
view of theory and the world that members of a scientific community share
that also influences its research methodologies.
phenomenology: Another
qualitative research method in which the "lived experience" is paramount.
philosophy:
Closely related to research as it influences the research process.
The four main branches of philosophy are described elsewhere in the alphabet.
The doctoral student becomes intimately acquainted with philosophy and
its various facets. The student of philosophy is inherent in the
pursuit of a PhD--which is literally a doctorate in philosophy as it relates
to the discipline of study.
PHS Guidelines:
US Public Health Service Guidelines for applying for funding from the NINR
to support research. Doctoral students need to become familiar with
in order to apply for funding for doctoral study or later research activities.
positivism:
The view that there is one general, universal truth that can be discovered
through application of the scientific research process in controlled experiments
that is not influenced by social or historical contexts or researcher bias.
Empiricism and "hard" science are its synonyms.
post-modernism:
The time period after 1940, and the related thinking of this time period
on any subject--some aspects of modernism are rejected.
power: Relates
to how powerful your research study is, or how likely you are of making
a mistake and rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually false.
Mathematically, it is 1-Beta. See how helpful Greek is?
proposal: A
necessary document for doing research. Usually the first 3 chapters of
a dissertation, or the introduction, review of the literature and proposed
methodology for a research project.
Q
Quantitative vs qualitative
research methodology: Possibly two of the most important concepts
for the budding researcher. The source of past heated debates in
scholarly circles, now somewhat resolved. Sometime called "hard versus
soft research". Other differences: laboratory vs. naturalistic setting,
objectivity vs. subjectivity, one truth vs. multiple truths. The
doctoral student will dissect the differences in these two methods and
will acquire basic knowledge about each, and more extensive knowledge in
the one utilized in dissertation.
R
random selection:
One of the hallmarks of experimental research. Each person in the
population has the same chance of being randomly picked to be in the study
sample.
regression:
Not as in defensive coping mechanisms, but as in a sophisticated method
of analyzing quantitative data to see which predictors most clearly are
related to the criterion variable.
reliability: scale
and interrater: How consistently accurate a research instrument is
or how accurate a judge or rater is in making rating decisions.
research: Desired
end result of a Ph.D. program, since it is the "tool of science."
S
salient: Very
popular word that simply means conspicuous or prominent; commonly utilized
in scholarly discourse. A word not to just forget after that GRE review,
but to remember when you encounter it in doctoral courses.
science: Can
mean a body of knowledge or even a type of inquiry used to acquire knowledge
or truth(s).
synthesis:
Opposite of analysis; valuable technique of pulling together and summarizing
concepts, constructs, statements, etc. to develop increased awareness,
insight or even a model.
T
theory: A conceptual
set of statements that are connected and provide a frame of reference for
a study or field of study. Researchers attempt to test, build and/or
extend theory.
triangulation:
If you are brave, you can combine both quantitative and qualitative methods
in one research study.
U
utility: Usefulness
to the public or for humanity, as in utility of a study.
V
validity: Highly
sought after characteristic in quantitative research. The various
types include construct, content, external and internal.
variables:
Concepts that can have differing values. Refers to dimensions of
phenomena. Quantitative researchers seek to describe these more clearly.
variance: Refers
to the amount of variability involved in specific statistical analyses.
See ANOVA. Statistically, it is actually the standard deviation,
squared.
W
web: Slang word for
internet. Doctoral students must be very familiar with how to access
the web, as it is an invaluable tool for library and database searches.
webs of significance:
Anthropological term for the intricate way that various meanings are woven
into actions, behaviors and language. The ethnographic researcher attempts
to understand the webs of significance of a particular culture.
X
X variable: One of
the most important letters of the research alphabet for the quantitative
researcher--usually the unknown, independent or predictor variable when
analyzing quantitative research data.
Y
Y variable:
The other most important letter of the research alphabet--usually the dependent,
criterion or variable that regresses, as in "Y regressed on X".
Z
Z scores: Scores
in statistical analysis that are expressed in standard units according
to how much deviance there is from the mean.
Z variable:
X and Y are not enough; you also sometimes need Z, a control variable,
for use in multiple regression analysis.
Conclusions
Although this alphabet provides only a cursory review of terminology that
may be encountered in the first year of a doctoral program, I hope that
it will in some small way help prepare doctoral students for this exciting,
challenging, and growth-producing experience. Some of these terms
may not have as much real meaning or relevance until doctoral study is
actually begun, while other terms may become understood in a more meaningful
way. As one begins and progresses through the doctoral program,
he/she will add more terms to the repertoire, or alphabet, resulting in
increased knowledge and confidence. A larger alphabet--and ultimately--an
expanded and more sophisticated, language of discourse will develop--the
language of the scientist and scholar. The ultimate challenge for
the enlightened doctoral student is not just to acquire the language, but
also to utilize it in a meaningful manner for the benefit of the discipline
and science of nursing. The development of a doctoral alphabet for
students in later years of study, and during the dissertation phase of
the doctoral program, a problematic time for many students, may be helpful
in facilitating further transition to the language of scholarly discourse.
References
American
Association of Colleges in Nursing (AACN). (2000). Nursing
School Enrollments Decline as Demand for RNs Continues to Climb.
Available online at: http://www.aacn.edu.
Beaufort,
A. (1997). Operationalizing the concept of discourse community:
A case study of one institutional site of composing. Research in
the Teaching of English, 31(4), 486-529.
Berkenkotter,
C., Huckin, T. N., & Ackerman, J. (1988). Conventions,
conversations, and the writer: Case study of a student in a rhetoric
Ph.D. program. Research in the Teaching of English, 22(1), 1988,
9-44.
Heinrich,
K. T. (1998). Holistic doctoral education for holistic nursing. Image,
The Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 30(4), 308-309.
Kleinbaum,
D. G., Kupper, L. L., Muller, K. E., & Nizam, A. (1998).
Applied regression analysis and Other Multivariable Methods. Pacific
Grove, CA: Duxbury.
Meltzoff,
J. (1998). Critical Thinking About Research. Washington,
D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Merriam-Webster's
Dictionary & Thesaurus. Available online: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/Libs/PCL/Dictionaries.html
Nicoll,
L. H. (1997). (Ed). Perspectives on Nursing Theory.
3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott.
Stuart,
G. W. & Sundeen, S. J. (1995). Principles and Practice
of Psychiatric Nursing. 5th ed. St. Louis: Mosby.
|
Books
on this topic from Amazon.com (click on book to order or examine):
Peterson's
Grants for Graduate & Post Doctoral
Study (5th Edition)
Writing
Your Doctoral Dissertation : Invisible Rules for Success
by
Rita S. Brause
On
Doctoral Education in Nursing : The Voice of the Student
by
Dona Rinaldi Carpenter, Sharon Hudacek |
